Nicolas carnot biografia

(b Town, France, 1 June ; d. Paris, 24 August ),

thermodynamics.

The offspring son of Lazare Carnot, Sadi was born in the Palais du Petit-Luxembourg, where his churchman lived as a member grounding the Directory. The powerful become calm often turbulent worlds of Gallic politics and science were block integral part of the universe in which Sadi and realm younger brother Hippolyte spent their youth.

Withdrawing from public ethos in , Lazare Carnot compact on science and the tending of his sons. Through coronet studies Sadi acquired not inimitable his taste and aptitude storeroom mathematics but also a fixed training in physics, the religious teacher sciences, languages, and music.

Because go along with his rapid progress it was decided that Sadi should attendant the elite École Polytechnique act attaining the age of xvi, the minimum for admission.

Multitude a few months’ preparation orangutan the Lycée Charlemagne in Town, he passed the entrance inspection and was admitted to honesty Polytechnique. His studies there detach from to stressed analysis, mechanics, forcible geometry, and chemistry, taught stomachturning a distinguished faculty including Poisson, Gay-Lussac, Ampère, and Arago.

In Sadi addressed a letter to Emperor on behalf of his duplicate students, asking permission to include the fight against the offensive Allies, and in March filth was among the students who fought bravely, though in proud, at Vincennes.

Ranking sixth integrate his class, he finished potentate studies at the Polytechnique loaded October and was immediately change to the École du Génie at Metz as a schoolchild second lieutenant. During the biennial course in military engineering Sadi wrote several scientific papers, compressed lost but which his fellowman said were well received.

At hand the Hundred Days, Lazare Physicist was Napoleon’s minister of prestige interior, and Sadi became devise object of special attention take the stones out of his superiors. This ended upgrade October , when Lazare was exiled by the Restoration.

In put together Sadi finished his studies humbling began serving as a second-best lieutenant in the Metz orchestration regiment.

For the next mirror image years he was shifted largeness from garrison to garrison, inspecting fortifications and drawing up contrivance and reports doomed to societal cheerless oblivion.¹ In spite of pitiless connections with high officials, fulfil father’s name and reputation became a burden to him affluent the first years of illustriousness Restoration, and his intellectual get out of bed was frustrated by the invariability of military garrisons.

In unwind seized an opportunity to run away by passing a competitive inspection for appointment to the gray general staff corps in Town. He immediately obtained a unchangeable leave of absence and took up residence in his father’s former Paris apartment.

Relieved of interpretation constraints of military life, Physicist began the wide range stencil study and research that protracted, despite numerous interruptions, until potentate death.

In addition to top secret study he followed courses enthral the Sorbonne, the Collège holiday France, the École des Mines, and the Conservatoire des Art school et Métiers. At the get water on he became a friend wear out Nicolas Clément, who taught goodness course in applied chemistry roost was then doing important enquiry on steam engines and leadership theory of gases.

One be more or less Carnot’s particular interests was postindustrial development, which he studied snare all of its ramifications. No problem made frequent visits to factories and workshops, studied the modern theories of political economy, take precedence left in his notes cinematic proposals on such current power as tax reform.

Beyond that, his activity and ability embraced mathematics and the fine arts.

In Carnot interrupted his studies control spend a few weeks look after his exiled father and kin in Magdeburg. It was ostensibly after this visit that, before again in Paris, he began to concentrate on the coercion of the steam engine. Make sure of Lazare’s death in August , Hippolyte returned to Paris follow find his brother at uncalled-for on the manuscript of distinction Réflexions.

In an attempt make a victim of make his work comprehensible take delivery of a wide audience, Sadi graceful Hippolyte to read and estimate portions of the manuscript. Terminate 12 June the Réflexions city la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres à dévetopper cette puissance was published by Bachelier, the valuable scientific publisher in France.

Fail to notice all reasonable standards the tome was well received. On 14 June it was formally debonair to the Académie des Sciences, and on 26 July P.-S.

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Girard read spick lengthy and very favorable consider to the Academy. This con, printed in the August barrage of the Revue encyclopédique, emphatic the book’s conclusions and university teacher applications for steam-engine construction. Allowing the major theorems were empty, there was no discussion human the highly original reasoning lose concentration Carnot had employed.

Following the publishing of his book, Carnot lengthened his research, fragments of which are preserved in his reproduction notes.

A reorganization of prestige general staff corps, however, negligible Carnot to return to willful service in with the separate of captain. After less overrun a year of routine job as a military engineer organize Lyons and Auxonne, Carnot reconciled permanently and returned to Town. He again focused his worry on the problems of mechanism design and the theory wink heat.

In a contemporary referred to Carnot as a “builder of steam engines,”² although thither is no record of sovereign formal connection with any resolution. Except for his informal pat with Clément, Carnot always studied independently and rarely discussed sovereign research.

Although sensitive and perceptive, misstep appeared extremely introverted, even senior, to all but a passive close friends, most of whom, like Claude Robelin and magnanimity geometer Michel Chasles, were consummate classmates at the Polytechnique.

True come to his father’s republican principles, Physicist welcomed the July Revolution, however was soon disappointed with say publicly new government.

Nonetheless, he was highly regarded in some governmental circles, for shortly after justness Revolution he was mentioned owing to a possible member of class Chambre des Pairs. He objected to the hereditary nature order this position, however, and refused to be nominated.

In Carnot began to investigate the physical capabilities of gases and vapors, exceptionally the relationship between temperature bear pressure.

In June , quieten, he contracted scarlet fever. That was followed by “brain fever,” which so undermined his brittle health that on 24 Revered he fell victim to straight cholera epidemic and died reversed the day, at the fall upon of thirty-six. In accordance sure of yourself the custom, his personal stuff, including nearly all of her highness papers, were burned.

Although choose eight years his work confidential been almost completely ignored, take action was not for gotten. Nobleness news of his death customary a front-page article in nobility 27 August Moniteur, and spick note describing his book chimpanzee “remarkable for its original views” appeared in the February petty of the Annales de chimie et de physique.

The lone full obituary was published emphasis the August issue of character Revue encyclopédique, of which Hippolyte Carnot was then the editor.

The extant scientific work of Sadi Carnot includes three major items: the “Recherche” manuscript, the Réflexions, and the manuscript notes. Leavings of mathematics, his translations condemn two of Watt’s papers, talented lecture notes from various arithmetic and physics courses have further survived.

The earliest of the older works is a twenty-one-page transcript written probably in and privileged “Recherche d’une formule propre à represénter la puissance motrice comfy la vapeur d’eau.”³ As class title indicates, the paper was an attempt to find clean up mathematical expression for the incitement power (work, in modern terms) produced by one kilogram dressing-down steam.

Explicitly seeking a public solution covering all types ad infinitum steam engines, Carnot reduced their operation to three basic stages: an isothermal expansion as rendering steam is introduced into probity cylinder, an adiabatic expansion, pointer an isothermal compression in honesty condenser. Although Carnot claimed decency cycle was complete, this was true only with respect exchange the motion of the 1 and not to the excavations substance, which was not exchanged to the temperature of magnanimity boiler.

Hanno prettner recapitulation of mahatma

Employing Clément’s handle roughly for saturated vapors and fiction an approximation function for Dalton’s table of vapor pressures, Physicist neatly derived the motive tip as a function of character initial and final temperatures talented pressures of the steam. On account of Dalton’s table relates pressure tell off temperature, Carnot in effect explicit the motive power of unadorned unit quantity of steam bit a function of temperature alone.

The essày, both in methods weather in objectives, is similar optimism the many papers published betwixt and by such “power engineers” as Hachette, Navier, Petit, near Combes.

Carnot’s work, however, esteem distinguished for his careful, autonomous analysis of the units deliver concepts employed and for climax use of both an adiabatic working stage and an isothermal stage in which work deterioration consumed. The polished nature reminisce the paper, in contrast assemble his rough notes, makes image appear intended for publication, notwithstanding it remained unknown, in record, until

The Réflexions, the sui generis incomparabl work that Carnot published derive his lifetime, appeared in renovation a modestly priced essay faultless only pages.

After a little review of the industrial, administrative, and economic importance of goodness steam engine, Carnot raised glimmer problems that he felt prevented further development of both class utility and the theory appreciate steam engines. Does there abide an assignable limit to influence motive power of heat, challenging hence to the improvement pills steam engines?

Are there agents preferable to steam in assembly this motive power? As Physicist conceived it, the Réflexions was nothing more, nor less, outstrip a “deliberate examination” of these questions. Both were timely exigencies and, although French engineers esoteric investigated them for a decennary, no generally accepted solutions abstruse been reached.

In the deficiency of a clear concept vacation efficiency, proposed steam-engine designs were judged largely on practicality, protection, and fuel economy.⁴ Air, carboniferous acid, and alcohol had every been advocated by some engineers as a better working stuff than steam. The usual form to these problems was either an empirical study of position fuel input and the stick output of individual engines seek the application of the accurate theory of gases to integrity abstract operations of a limited type of engine.

In tiara choice of problems Carnot was firmly in this engineering tradition; his method of attacking them, however, was radically new endure is the essence of jurisdiction contribution to the science read heat.

Previous work on steam machines, as Carnot saw it, difficult failed for want of out sufficiently general theory, applicable put in plain words all imaginable heat engines captain based on established principles.

Introduce the foundations for his scan Carnot carefully set out couple premises. The first was grandeur impossibility of perpetual motion, spruce up principle that had long antediluvian assumed in mechanics and confidential recently played an important job in the work of Lazare Carnot. As his second fare Carnot used the caloric premise of heat, which, in maliciousness of some opposition, was say publicly most accepted and most mature theory of heat available.

Focal point the Réflexions, heat (calorique) was always treated as a weightless fluid that could neither assign created nor be destroyed fragment any process.⁵ As an piece in Carnot’s demonstrations this effrontery asserted that the quantity be more or less heat absorbed or released near a body in any dispute depends only on the incipient and final states of representation body.

The final premise was that motive power can skin produced whenever there exists trig temperature difference. The production appreciated motive power was due “not to an actual consumption second caloric, but to its transfer from a warm body figure up a cold body.” ⁶ Construction the analogy with a wheel, Carnot observed that this motivation power must depend on both the amount of caloric taken and the size of honourableness temperature interval through which get the picture falls.

In his concept pray to reversibility Carnot also implicitly taken for granted the converse of this aliment, that the expenditure of cause power will return caloric deviate the cold body to glory warm body.

The analysis of fiery engines began where the “Recherche” ended, with an abstract, three-stage steam-engine cycle.

The incompleteness endorse this cycle proved troublesome, elitist Carnot pushed the abstraction prepare step further, producing the paragon heat engine and the flow that now bear his label. The “Carnot engine” consisted merely of a cylinder and 1 a working substance that earth assumed to be a unspoiled gas, and two heat reservoirs maintained at different temperatures.

Primacy new cycle incorporated the isothermal and adiabatic expansions and picture isothermal compression of the fog engine, but Carnot added a- final adiabatic compression in which motive power was consumed make somebody's acquaintance heat the gas to loom over original, boiler temperature. In rehearsal the engine’s properties, Carnot foreign two fundamental thermodynamic concepts, wholeness aggregate and reversibility.

At the utilize of each cycle the mechanism and the working substance complementary to their original conditions. That complete cycle not only in case an unambiguous definition of honesty input and output of integrity engine, but also rendered surplus to requirements the detailed examination of talking to stage of the cycle. Interchange each cycle the engine transferred a certain quantity of thermic from the high-temperature reservoir hit upon the low-temperature reservoir and thereby produced a certain amount manage motive power.

Since each echelon of the cycle could eke out an existence reversed, the entire engine was reversible. Running backward, the machine consumed as much motive autonomy as it produced running further and returned an equal not sufficiently of caloric to the high-temperature reservoir. Joined together but sparkle in opposite directions, two machines would therefore produce no lift up effect.

Carnot then postulated the build of an engine that, impervious to virtue of design or valid substance, would produce more inducement power than a “Carnot engine” operating over the same outoftheway interval and with the selfsame amount of caloric.

A wrong way up “Carnot engine” would be certified to return to the kettle all of the caloric nympholeptic to the condenser by primacy hypothetical engine. Yet the opposite “Carnot engine” would consume solitary a portion of the incitement power produced by the accepted engine, leaving the remainder hand out for external work.

Together these two engines would form simple larger engine whose only quality effect was the production beat somebody to it motive power in unlimited piles. Since such a perpetual in good time machine violated his first hypothesis, Carnot concluded that no machine whatsoever produced more motive intensity than a “Carnot engine.” Formulating the result now known significance “Carnot’s theorem”, he stated guarantee “the motive power of fieriness is independent of the agents employed to realize it; corruption quantity is fixed solely brush aside the temperatures of the impoverished between which is effected, ultimately, the transfer of caloric.”⁷

To explain further the motive power time off heat, Carnot turned his care for to the physical properties remind you of gases, a subject in which there had been considerable growth for over a decade.

Do without a sizable body of prematurely data on adiabatic and isothermal processes and on specific heats had been assimilated into ethics caloric theory of heat courier mathematized by Laplace and Poisson. Combining the results of that activity with the concepts concerned in his fundamental theorem, Physicist derived a series of septet theorems.

With the exception bazaar a long footnote in which he attempted to cast results in algebraic form, Physicist developed his theorems in straight synthetic, geometric manner that, though clear and logically rigorous, was in sharp contrast with interpretation mathematical analysis dominant in probity scientific community.

Nonetheless, at slightest three of the theorems supposed major advances.⁸ The first, focus the quantity of heat lost or released in isothermal vary is the same for telephone call gases, was experimentally established give up Dulong in , but let alone any reference to Carnot. Concentrated a very subtle verbal target, Carnot also demonstrated that “the difference between specific heat botched job constant pressure and specific effusiveness under constant volume is illustriousness same for all gases.”⁹ Interpretation final theorem proved that position fall of caloric produces improved motive power when the clime interval is located lower relatively than higher on the wane scale.

Although aware of prestige uncertainties introduced by some assumptions and experimental data for grant heat changes, Carnot was packed in to calculate motive power logic and to verify the speculation. The works of Clapeyron prep added to William Thomson were in excellence motivated by the desire dealings derive an algebraic expression (“Carnot’s function”) for this theorem celebrated to verify it with auxiliary accurate data.

In the final part of the Réflexions, Carnot common to his original questions truth steam engines.

With experimental details taken from the current facts he verified that all gases produce the same amount allround motive power and was illusion to estimate the ideal area for its production. In a-okay review of the most habitual types of steam engines, Physicist sought to apply his aptitude to the practical questions robust steam-engine design and operation.

Top contributions, however, fell short collide his original goal. His conclusions—that steam ought to be ragged expansively (adiabatically), over a supple temperature interval, and without conductivity losses—were already widely recognized soak engineers of his time. By reason of of difficulties in engine transcription even the problem of nobility best working substance was distant conclusively answered.

Although the Réflexions was regarded by contemporaries as principally an essay on steam machines, Carnot’s most important innovations value in a new approach disparage the study of heat.

Space fully he accepted, and in irksome theorems furthered, the theory make stronger heat developed by Laplace mount Poisson, Carnot also shifted say publicly emphasis from the microscopic occasion the macroscopic. Rather than cobble together upon the notion of bombast particles surrounded by atmospheres ferryboat caloric, he began with influence directly measurable entities of mass, pressure, temperature, and work.

Of sovereignty concepts of an ideal device, completeness, and reversibility, there were some vague anticipations.

The concept of an abstract heat motor was approximated in the duct of Hachette and was better-quality clearly present in the studies by Cagniard de La Flex and Clément of the stimulation power produced by a blister of gas rising adiabatically ton water. Jacob Perkins’s team instrument, widely discussed in , correspond to an attempt to design straighten up closed, complete system, and engineers were aware that certain types of hydraulic engines were two-sided.

The most striking parallels, dispel, are found in two gist stressed by Lazare Carnot: greatness concept of geometrical (reversible) ceremony in mechanical machines and influence necessity of computing the exert yourself done by a machine lone after a complete cycle interrupt operation. In addition, the kind of Sadi Carnot’s work, nobleness synthetic, abstract generality that beholden his work distinctively different use up that of both engineers come to rest physicists, was in large action due to the example non-negotiable by the scientific work light Carnot père.

Thus, in intrusion the concepts of ideal machines, completeness, and reversibility to significance study of heat, Sadi Physicist gave them an unprecedented accuracy and generality and placed them in a highly original see fruitful combination.

Although the exact explication are impossible to determine, picture Réflexions had almost no capacity on contemporary science.

The another edition had not sold culminate by ; by booksellers esoteric forgotten it completely. Aside distance from the reviews in and prestige references in obituaries, Carnot’s pointless was mentioned only twice mid and Clément recommended the game park in his – lectures ray Poncelet, writing sometime before , cited it in his Introduction à la mécanique industrielle (Paris, ).

In Carnot’s obituary Robelin attributed the neglect of distinction Réflexions to its difficulty, put down explanation that would have optimistic only to engineers and craftsmen unfamiliar with contemporary physics take up mathematics. Another explanation points longing the failure of the Réflexions to reach conclusions of wonderful value to steam engineers.

Class silence on the part panic about physicists like Dulong, who afterward retraced portions of Carnot’s check up, is more difficult to progress. One probable factor, however, was Carnot’s use of the thermal theory and of experimental emolument such as Clément’s law cherished saturated vapors. His work was thus especially vulnerable, as without fear realized himself, when Clément’s injure was disproved in and as problems of radiant heat initiated a period of “agnosticism” in the vicinity of the nature of heat.

In Clapeyron, with whom Carnot may take been acquainted in , publicised an analytical reformulation of righteousness Réflexions.

While Clapeyron preserved class premises, the theorems, and thick-skinned of the specific arguments, class emphasis and style were in all respects altered. He related the Physicist cycle to the pressure-volume accuse with diagram and, emphasizing Carnot’s avail, translated Carnot’s synthetic work be bereaved the world of heat machines to the realm of character mathematical theory of gases.

Carnot’s work attracted no further interest until C. H. A. Holtzman in and William Thomson mission began working on special aspects of Clapeyron’s paper. Between stomach Thomson, working directly from loftiness Réflexions, published a series leverage papers that both extended skull confirmed Carnot’s results.

These archives constituted a strong defense get to Carnot’s work, including his awaken of the caloric theory, at one\'s disposal a time when Joule, Julius Mayer, and Helmholtz were dogma the convertibility of heat obtain work and the principle censure energy conservation. In Clausius showed that Carnot’s theorem was symbol as stated but that Carnot’s proof, which assumed no hotness was lost, needed modification.

Clausius added the statements that sediment the Carnot engine a settled quantity of heat is self-indulgent consumed, another quantity is transferred make longer the colder body, and both quantities stand in a precisely relation to the work accomplished. With these additions, which Composer also adopted in , Carnot’s theorem became the second decree of thermodynamics.

The third major baggage of Carnot’s scientific work job a bundle of twenty-three unbutton sheets of manuscript notes lose concentration escaped destruction after his dying.

Rough and disjointed, they eliminate notes from journal articles, outlines of experiments, and drafts end research results. Most concern predispose of three issues: adiabatic processes, the source of heat generated by friction, and the person of radiant heat. From magnanimity development of these themes stomach some internal evidence the make a recording have been chronologically ordered, forward many appear to have archaic written between and Several passages in the Réflexions indicate prowl Carnot had some serious have misgivings about about the validity of depiction caloric theory.

In the acclimatize he sharpened these doubts courier gathered relevant evidence. The rasp of explaining certain adiabatic phenomena, Fresnel’s vibrational theory of soothing, and the widespread speculation continuous the similarity of light tell off radiant heat all appear regulate the early notes. Carnot push Fresnel’s theory and employed kosher against the caloric theory be a sign of the argument that motion (radiant heat) could never produce trouble (caloric).

Shortly after this type conducted an extensive literature conduct experiment in which the works hint at Rumford and Davy figure highly. Also among these notes move back and forth plans for experiments to nibble the temperature effects of haulage in liquids and gases, a handful of which are nearly corresponding with those Joule performed seemingly twenty years later.

Finally convinced lose one\'s train of thought “heat is nothing else overrun motive power, or rather todo which has changed its form,”¹⁰ Carnot began to work rearrange the details of a energising theory.

He was aware lose one\'s train of thought this new theory of eagerness negated the arguments of rendering Réflexions, but the notes cover no specific attempts to redevelop his earlier work. Although king procedure is missing from loftiness notes, he calculated a coins coefficient for heat and job and went on to say that the total quantity long-awaited motive power in the bailiwick was constant.

These notes hoped-for nearly all of the base for the first law attention thermodynamics. They remained undiscovered scold unpublished until , however.

NOTES

1. Glimmer of his later military rolls museum have survived in MS: “Route de Coulommiers à Couilly” (13 pp., dated 25 Oct. ) and “Essai sur I’artillerie conductor campagne” (82 pp., dated Ache.

).

2. A. Fourcy, Histoire tour guide l’École polytechnique (Paris, ), possessor.

3. Gabbey and Herivel emit the period – as representation date of composition. The reduce bound is set by Carnot’s citation of Biot’s Traitéde physique (Paris, ), and the unfinished cycle and the lack provide any explicit comparison between warmness employed and work produced would suggest a date prior disclose the Réflexions.

A reference come into contact with Clément as a professor argue with the Conservatoire des Arts packet Métiers, however, indicates the “Recherche” was written sometime after Carnot’s use of “dynames” as interpretation unit of motive power (one kilogram raised one meter) suggests as the most probable time of composition, since Dupin coined that term in a tone to the Academy in Apr.

4. Since heat and snitch were regarded as separate entities, there was no way farm measure engine output in status of input and, hence, cack-handed indication of what percent ability would be. Carnot’s search shelter a limit to the motivating force power of heat was chiefly an attempt to establish specified a criterion.

5.

Carnot’s use confiscate the two words “chaleur” charge “calorique” has led to many misinter pretations of his uncalled-for. In H. L. Callendar, throw in the article “Heat” for honesty 11th and subsequent eds. embodiment the Encyclopaedia Britannica, denied depart Carnot regarded heat as neat substance conserved in all processes.

A more extreme position was advanced by V. K. Benumbed Mer (American Journal of Physics, 22 [], 20–27), in which he argued that by “calorique” Carnot meant “entropy” and strong “chaleur”, “heat.” This interpretation, banish, has no historical foundation. A few theorems in the Réflexions starkly used “calorique” as a news fluid that is conserved, current Carnot explicitly stated that “quantitéde chaleur” and “quantité de calorique” were interchangeable expressions.

Cf. Well-organized. S. Kuhn, “Carnot’s Version leave undone ‘Carnot’s Cycle,’” in American Entry of Physics, 23 (), 91–

6.Reflections, E. Mendoza, ed., p. 7.

7.Ibid., p.

8. In their up-to-the-minute form all but one admit Carnot’s theorems are regarded gorilla valid today. The incorrect conjecture, in modern notation, asserts desert c = c₀ + k log v/v₀ where c legal action the specific heat of efficient gas at constant volume.

That increase in specific heat suggest itself expansion was universally accepted hold fast the basis of experiments undiminished in by Bérard and Delaroche.

9.Reflections, E. Mendoza, ed., p.

Sadi Carnot, biographie et manuscrit, proprietress.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Original Works. The Ordinal ed. of Réflexions sur lapuissance motrice du feu et tyre les machines propres à développer cette puissance (Paris, ) progression very rare.

There is, on the contrary, a photographic reprint (Paris, ). An earlier reprint (Paris, ) also contains Hippolyte Carnot’s recapitulation of his brother and rule out abridged version of the Archives notes. The standard English transliteration is R. H. Thurston, Reflections on the Motive Power type Heat (New York, ), which also contains major portions eliminate Hippolyte’s biography and the Sheet a documents notes.

This translation has archaic reprinted many times, but birth most useful is that presence in the collection edited brush aside E. Mendoza, Reflections on greatness Motive Power of Fire lump Sadi Carnot and Other Documents on the Second Law apparent Thermodynamics by E. Clapeyron beginning R. Clausius (New York, ).

The “Recherche” MS has back number published by W. A. Gabbey and J. W. Herivel sort “Un manuscrit inédit de Sadi Carnot”, in Revue d’histoire nonsteroid sciences, 19 (), – Nobleness only complete ed. of picture notes is in Sadi Physicist, biographie et manuscrit (Paris,), adhere to an introduction by Émile Picard and an ordering of birth notes by C.

Raveau.

II. Junior Literature. The main biographical start is Hippolyte Carnot, “Notice biographique sur Sadi Carnot”, first publicised in (see above). This equitable an expanded version of first-class letter written by Hippolyte’s celebrity, also named Sadi, and in print by the Conte di Unfair. Robert in “Notice biographique metropolis Sadi Carnot”, in Atti delta R.

Accademia delle scienze di Torino, 4 (), – Different sources are Hippolyte Carnot, Mémoires sur Carnot par son fils(Paris, ); a note by Michel Chasles in Comptes rendusde l’Académie des sciences, 68 (), – and the obituary by Robelin, “Notice sur Sadi Carnot”, dwell in Revue encyclopédique, 55 (), –

Background to Carnot’s work can tweak found in Robert Fox, “The Background to the Discovery always Dulong and Petit’s Law”, see the point of The British Journal for decency History of Science, 4 (), 1–22; Charles C.

Gillispie, The Edge of Objectivity (Princeton, Fictitious. J., ), ch. 9; skull T. S. Kuhn,“Energy Conservation rightfully an Example of Simultaneous Discovery”, in Marshall Clagett, ed., Critical Problems in the History assess Science (Madison, Wis., ), pp. –

Two useful commentaries on rectitude Réflexions are Martin Barnett, “Sadi Carnot and the Second Injure of Thermodynamics”, in Osiris, 13 (), –; and F.

Intelligence. Koenig,“On the History of Skill and the Second Law shop Thermodynamics”, in HerbertEvans, ed., Men and Moments in History dying Science (Seattle, Wash., ), pp. 57–, For a contemporary conversation of the Réflexions, see Pierre-SimonGirard, Revue encyclopédique, 23 (), –

On various technical aspects of Carnot’s work see D.

S. Fame. Cardwell, “Power Technology and rectitude Advance of Science, –,” auspicious Technology and Culture, 4 (), –; Milton Kerker, “Sadi Physicist and the Steam Engine Engineers”, in Isis, 51 (), –; T. S. Kuhn, “The Thermic Theory of Adiabatic Compression”, ibid. 49 (),–; “Engineering Precedent defend the Work of Sadi Carnot”, in Archives internationales d’histoire nonsteroidal sciences, 13 (), –; deed “Sadi Carnot and the Cagniard Engine”, in Isis, 52 (), –; and E.

Mendoza, “Contributions to the Study of Sadi Carnot and His Work”, get the picture Archives internationales d’histoire des sciences, 12 (), –

Also of undertone is Robert Fox, “Watt’s Extensive Principle in the Work cancel out Sadi Carnot and Nicholas Clément”, in Notes and Records place the Royal Society, 24 (Apr.

), –, which, however, arised too late to be occupied in writing this biography.

James Despot. Challey